The How and Why of Animal Activity

The claw-waving behavior has two functions: To repel other males To attract femalesA behavior is an action carried out by muscles under control of the nervous systemBehaviors and the anatomical structures related to their performance are subject to natura

Video: Albatross (信天翁) Courtship Ritual

Video: Blue-footed Boobies (藍腳鰹鳥) Courtship Ritual

Video: Giraffe Courtship Ritual

Concept 52.1: Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviors

Fixed Action Patterns (固定行為模式)

Migration

Behavioral Rhythms

Animal Signals and Communication

Forms of Animal Communication

The information content of animal communication is variableOne of the most remarkable examples is the symbolic language of the European honeybee (Apis mellifera) 歐洲蜂/西方蜜蜂, discobered in the early 1900s by Austrian researcher Karl von Frisch.

Pheromones

Concept 52.2: Learning establishes specific links between experience and behavior

Experience and Behavior

Learning

Imprinting

Spatial Learning and Cognitive Maps

A cognitive map (認知圖) is an internal representation of spatial relationships between objects in an animal’s surroundingsFor example, Clark’s nutcrackers (北美星鴉) can find food hidden in caches located halfway between particular landmarks

Associative Learning聯結學習/聯想學習

Cognition and Problem Solving

Social Learning

Concept 52.3: Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain diverse behaviors

Evolution of Foraging Behavior

Optimal Foraging Model

Mating Behavior and Mate Choice

Mating Systems and Parental Care

Sexual Selection and Mate Choice

Mate Choice by FemalesFemale choice is a type of intersexual selection (異性選汰)Females can drive sexual selection by choosing males with specific behaviors or features of anatomyFor example, female stalk-eyed flies choose males with relatively long eyestalk

Mate choice can also be influenced by imprintingExperiments carried out with zebra finchesFemale zebra finch chicks show no preference for male ornamentation when raised by fathers without ornamentationFemale chicks raised by fathers with artificial ornam

Male Competition for MatesMale competition for mates is a source of intrasexual selection (同性選汰) that can reduce variation among malesSuch competition may involve agonistic behavior, an often ritualized contest that determines which competitor gains acces

Applying Game Theory

Concept 52.4: Genetic analyses and the concept of inclusive fitness provide a basis for studying the evolution of behavior

Genetic Basis of Behavior

Genetic Variation and the Evolution of Behavior

Altruism

Inclusive Fitness

Hamilton’s Rule and Kin Selection

Figure 52.26

Natural selection favors altruism whenrB > CBenefit to the recipient (B)Cost to the altruist (C)Coefficient of relatedness (the fraction of genes that, on average, are shared, r)This inequality is called Hamilton’s ruleHamilton’s rule is illustrated with

Assume the average individual has two children. As a result of the sister’s action,The brother can now father two children, so B = 2The sister has a 25% chance of dying and not being able to have two children, so C = 0.25 × 2 = 0.5The brother and sister s

Kin selection (親緣選汰) is the natural selection that favors this kind of altruistic behavior by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives

An example of the relationship between kin selection and altruism is the warning behavior in Belding’s ground squirrelsFemales settle close to their site of birth, whereas males settle at distant sites Most alarm calls are given by females, who are likely

Figure 52.27

Naked mole rats living within a colony are closely relatedNonreproductive individuals increase their inclusive fitness by helping the reproductive queen and kings (their close relatives) to pass their genes to the next generation

Reciprocal Altruism (互惠性利他)

Evolution and Human Culture

Figure 52.26